diff --git a/packages/chord/src/delta/README.md b/packages/chord/src/delta/README.md
index d8527dd2d..db959c86b 100644
--- a/packages/chord/src/delta/README.md
+++ b/packages/chord/src/delta/README.md
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ Immutability is an ownership contract. Nothing is frozen or defensively copied,
 so an illegal mutation is not detected. It silently corrupts state.
 
 ```ts
-import { applyImmutable, track } from "@earendil-works/chord/delta";
+import { applyImmutable, applyImmutableBatches, track } from "@earendil-works/chord/delta";
 
 const initial = { output: "", entries: [] as { id: number }[] };
 const tracker = track(initial); // `initial` is transferred: never mutate it again
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ const replica = applyImmutable(prepared.base, prepared.ops);
 | External value after assigning or inserting it into a draft | Yes. The draft stored a validated clone. |
 | `tracker.value`, `prepared.base`, retained older revisions | No. |
 | `prepared.value`, `prepared.ops`, op tuples, paths, permutations, payloads | No. Payloads may be the same objects as parts of `prepared.value`. |
-| `applyImmutable()` inputs and result | No. The result shares containers with both inputs. |
+| `applyImmutable()` / `applyImmutableBatches()` inputs and result | No. The result shares containers with both inputs. |
 | Values from replicated state (`value`, listener values, loopback consumers) | No. In-process consumers may share the provider's containers. |
 | Mutable replica passed to `apply()` | Only through `apply()`, with batches it owns exclusively. Code that edits it between batches breaks convergence. |
 | Batch passed to `apply()` | Consumed. `apply()` adopts payload containers into the replica. Use a detached copy for exactly one replica and never touch it again. |
@@ -50,6 +50,20 @@ let replica = tracker.value; // shared with authority; never mutated
 replica = applyImmutable(replica, prepared.ops); // replica must equal prepared.base
 ```
 
+When only the final result of an ordered backlog is needed, replay its batches
+without concatenating their operations. One copy-on-write scope is shared across
+the complete call, so no intermediate revision is exposed or safe to retain:
+
+```ts
+replica = applyImmutableBatches(
+  replica,
+  queuedFrames.map((frame) => frame.ops),
+);
+```
+
+Use separate `applyImmutable()` calls when every intermediate revision is
+published or retained.
+
 Mutable replay needs a detached starting root and a detached copy of every batch
 for every replica. Never apply one in-memory batch to two mutable replicas:
 
@@ -155,8 +169,8 @@ and large edit sets may fold into a region splice, an ancestor `s`, or `r`.
 
 Reserved keys: the tracker never emits `__proto__`, `constructor`, or
 `prototype` as a path segment. A mutation at or below such a key is folded into a
-set of the nearest safe ancestor, or `r` at the root. `apply()`,
-`applyImmutable()`, and `decoder()` reject those segments with `UnsafePathError`.
+set of the nearest safe ancestor, or `r` at the root. `apply()`, `applyImmutable()`, `applyImmutableBatches()`, and `decoder()` reject
+those segments with `UnsafePathError`.
 The appliers write values as own data properties, never through a prototype setter.
 Appliers check op shape and path safety but not payload strictness. Chord's
 replicated-state replicas validate each resulting revision.
diff --git a/packages/chord/src/delta/apply-immutable-batch.ts b/packages/chord/src/delta/apply-immutable-batch.ts
deleted file mode 100644
index 338e251b1..000000000
--- a/packages/chord/src/delta/apply-immutable-batch.ts
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,71 +0,0 @@
-import type { JsonValue } from "../types.ts";
-import {
-	apply as applyMutable,
-	assertValidOp,
-	type Op,
-	type Path,
-	PathError,
-	type Seg,
-	UnsafePathError,
-} from "./index.ts";
-
-type JsonContainer = JsonValue[] | Record<string, JsonValue>;
-
-/** Apply one batch while copying each touched container at most once. */
-export function applyImmutable<T>(target: T | undefined, operations: readonly Op[]): T {
-	let root = target as unknown as JsonValue;
-	const owned = new WeakSet<object>();
-	for (const operation of operations) {
-		assertValidOp(operation);
-		if (operation[0] === "r") {
-			root = operation[1];
-			continue;
-		}
-		const path = operation[0] === "p" || operation[0] === "m" ? operation[1] : operation[1].slice(0, -1);
-		root = copyPath(root, path, owned);
-		root = applyMutable(root, [operation]);
-	}
-	return root as unknown as T;
-}
-
-function copyPath(root: JsonValue, path: Path, owned: WeakSet<object>): JsonValue {
-	if (!isContainer(root)) throw new PathError(path);
-	let copiedRoot = root;
-	if (!owned.has(root)) {
-		copiedRoot = shallowCopy(root);
-		owned.add(copiedRoot);
-	}
-	let destination = copiedRoot as JsonContainer;
-	for (const segment of path) {
-		if (Array.isArray(destination) && typeof segment !== "number") throw new UnsafePathError(segment);
-		if (!Object.hasOwn(destination, segment)) throw new PathError(path);
-		let child = (destination as Record<Seg, JsonValue>)[segment]!;
-		if (!isContainer(child)) throw new PathError(path);
-		if (!owned.has(child)) {
-			const copy = shallowCopy(child);
-			defineData(destination, segment, copy);
-			owned.add(copy);
-			child = copy;
-		}
-		destination = child;
-	}
-	return copiedRoot;
-}
-
-function shallowCopy(value: JsonContainer): JsonContainer {
-	if (Array.isArray(value)) return Array.from(value);
-	const result = Object.create(Object.getPrototypeOf(value) === null ? null : Object.prototype) as Record<
-		string,
-		JsonValue
-	>;
-	for (const key of Object.keys(value)) defineData(result, key, value[key]!);
-	return result;
-}
-
-function defineData(target: object, key: PropertyKey, value: JsonValue): void {
-	Object.defineProperty(target, key, { value, writable: true, enumerable: true, configurable: true });
-}
-
-function isContainer(value: unknown): value is JsonContainer {
-	return value !== null && typeof value === "object";
-}
diff --git a/packages/chord/src/delta/index.ts b/packages/chord/src/delta/index.ts
index 1d4aa89fc..982a6f464 100644
--- a/packages/chord/src/delta/index.ts
+++ b/packages/chord/src/delta/index.ts
@@ -405,22 +405,35 @@ function applyOps<T>(target: T | undefined, ops: readonly Op[]): T {
 	return root as unknown as T;
 }
 
-/** Apply decoded operations without mutating the previous immutable value. */
+/** Apply one decoded operation batch without mutating the previous immutable value. */
 export function applyImmutable<T>(target: T | undefined, ops: readonly Op[]): T {
+	return applyImmutableBatches(target, [ops]);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Apply decoded operation batches as one final-result-only replay.
+ *
+ * Containers copied for an earlier batch may be mutated while applying a later
+ * batch, so this deliberately exposes no intermediate revisions.
+ */
+export function applyImmutableBatches<T>(target: T | undefined, batches: Iterable<readonly Op[]>): T {
 	let root = target as unknown as JsonValue;
-	for (const op of ops) {
-		assertValidOp(op);
-		if (op[0] === "r") {
-			root = op[1];
-			continue;
+	const owned = new WeakSet<object>();
+	for (const ops of batches) {
+		for (const op of ops) {
+			assertValidOp(op);
+			if (op[0] === "r") {
+				root = op[1];
+				continue;
+			}
+			root = copyContainers(root, op[0] === "p" || op[0] === "m" ? op[1] : op[1].slice(0, -1), owned);
+			root = applyOps(root, [op]);
 		}
-		root = copyContainers(root, op[0] === "p" || op[0] === "m" ? op[1] : op[1].slice(0, -1));
-		root = applyOps(root, [op]);
 	}
 	return root as unknown as T;
 }
 
-function copyContainers(root: JsonValue, path: Path): JsonValue {
+function copyContainers(root: JsonValue, path: Path, owned: WeakSet<object>): JsonValue {
 	const copy = (value: JsonValue): JsonValue[] | Record<string, JsonValue> => {
 		if (Array.isArray(value)) return value.slice();
 		if (!isObj(value)) throw new PathError(path);
@@ -438,13 +451,23 @@ function copyContainers(root: JsonValue, path: Path): JsonValue {
 		}
 		return result;
 	};
-	const copiedRoot = copy(root);
-	let source = root;
+	if (!isObj(root)) throw new PathError(path);
+	let copiedRoot: JsonValue[] | Record<string, JsonValue>;
+	if (owned.has(root)) copiedRoot = root as JsonValue[] | Record<string, JsonValue>;
+	else {
+		copiedRoot = copy(root);
+		owned.add(copiedRoot);
+	}
 	let destination = copiedRoot;
 	for (const segment of path) {
-		if (!isObj(source) || !Object.hasOwn(source, segment)) throw new PathError(path);
-		if (Array.isArray(source) && typeof segment !== "number") throw new UnsafePathError(segment);
-		const child = (source as Record<Seg, JsonValue>)[segment]!;
+		if (!Object.hasOwn(destination, segment)) throw new PathError(path);
+		if (Array.isArray(destination) && typeof segment !== "number") throw new UnsafePathError(segment);
+		const child = (destination as Record<Seg, JsonValue>)[segment]!;
+		if (!isObj(child)) throw new PathError(path);
+		if (owned.has(child)) {
+			destination = child as JsonValue[] | Record<string, JsonValue>;
+			continue;
+		}
 		const copiedChild = copy(child);
 		Object.defineProperty(destination, segment, {
 			value: copiedChild,
@@ -452,7 +475,7 @@ function copyContainers(root: JsonValue, path: Path): JsonValue {
 			enumerable: true,
 			configurable: true,
 		});
-		source = child;
+		owned.add(copiedChild);
 		destination = copiedChild;
 	}
 	return copiedRoot;
diff --git a/packages/chord/src/delta/tracker.ts b/packages/chord/src/delta/tracker.ts
index 1d2dd4627..6cad0ee8c 100644
--- a/packages/chord/src/delta/tracker.ts
+++ b/packages/chord/src/delta/tracker.ts
@@ -1,9 +1,8 @@
 import { copyJson } from "../json.ts";
 import type { JsonValue } from "../types.ts";
-import { applyImmutable } from "./apply-immutable-batch.ts";
 import { applyImmutableTrusted } from "./apply-immutable-trusted.ts";
 import type { Draft } from "./draft.ts";
-import { type NonEmptyPath, type Op, overlap, type Path, RESERVED_SEGMENTS } from "./index.ts";
+import { applyImmutable, type NonEmptyPath, type Op, overlap, type Path, RESERVED_SEGMENTS } from "./index.ts";
 
 export type { Draft, JsonValue, Op };
 
diff --git a/packages/chord/test/delta-apply-immutable.test.ts b/packages/chord/test/delta-apply-immutable.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..c74167da1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/chord/test/delta-apply-immutable.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,272 @@
+import { describe, expect, it } from "vitest";
+import {
+	apply,
+	applyImmutable,
+	applyImmutableBatches,
+	type JsonValue,
+	type Op,
+	PathError,
+	track,
+	UnsafePathError,
+} from "../src/delta/index.ts";
+
+function freezeDeep<T>(value: T): T {
+	if (value === null || typeof value !== "object" || Object.isFrozen(value)) return value;
+	for (const child of Object.values(value)) freezeDeep(child);
+	return Object.freeze(value);
+}
+
+function clone<T>(value: T): T {
+	return JSON.parse(JSON.stringify(value)) as T;
+}
+
+describe("checked immutable operation application", () => {
+	it("copies each touched container once while preserving input and payload ownership", () => {
+		const shared = freezeDeep({ nested: { value: 1 } });
+		const untouched = freezeDeep({ value: 9 });
+		const rowPayload = freezeDeep({ id: 4, label: "placed" });
+		const base = freezeDeep({
+			text: "abcdef",
+			stable: { value: 7 },
+			branch: { value: 1 },
+			copy: null as { value: number } | null,
+			placed: null as typeof shared | null,
+			untouched: null as typeof untouched | null,
+			left: null as typeof shared | null,
+			right: null as typeof shared | null,
+			meta: { count: 0, obsolete: true },
+			rows: [
+				{ id: 1, label: "one" },
+				{ id: 2, label: "two" },
+				{ id: 3, label: "three" },
+			],
+		});
+		const operations = freezeDeep([
+			["t", ["text"], 2],
+			["a", ["text"], "!"],
+			["s", ["meta", "count"], 1],
+			["s", ["meta", "count"], 2],
+			["d", ["meta", "obsolete"]],
+			["s", ["copy"], base.branch],
+			["s", ["copy", "value"], 2],
+			["s", ["placed"], shared],
+			["s", ["placed", "nested", "value"], 2],
+			["s", ["untouched"], untouched],
+			["s", ["left"], shared],
+			["s", ["right"], shared],
+			["s", ["left", "nested", "value"], 3],
+			["p", ["rows"], 1, 1, [rowPayload]],
+			["s", ["rows", 1, "label"], "edited"],
+			["m", ["rows"], [1, 0, 2]],
+			["s", ["rows", 0, "label"], "moved"],
+		] satisfies Op[]);
+
+		const result = applyImmutable(base, operations);
+		const mutableResult = apply(clone(base), clone(operations));
+
+		expect(result).toEqual(mutableResult);
+		expect(result.text).toBe("cdef!");
+		expect(result.stable).toBe(base.stable);
+		expect(result.untouched).toBe(untouched);
+		expect(result.copy).not.toBe(base.branch);
+		expect(result.copy).toEqual({ value: 2 });
+		expect(result.placed).not.toBe(shared);
+		expect(result.placed).toEqual({ nested: { value: 2 } });
+		expect(result.left).not.toBe(shared);
+		expect(result.right).toBe(shared);
+		expect(result.rows[0]).not.toBe(rowPayload);
+		expect(result.rows[0]).toEqual({ id: 4, label: "moved" });
+		expect(base.branch.value).toBe(1);
+		expect(shared.nested.value).toBe(1);
+		expect(rowPayload.label).toBe("placed");
+	});
+
+	it("protects root replacement payloads before later object and array edits", () => {
+		const replacement = freezeDeep({ nested: { value: 1 }, values: [1, 2, 3] });
+		const result = applyImmutableBatches<typeof replacement>(undefined, [
+			[["r", replacement]],
+			[["s", ["nested", "value"], 2]],
+			[
+				["p", ["values"], 1, 1, [4, 5]],
+				["m", ["values"], [3, 0, 1, 2]],
+			],
+		]);
+		expect(result).toEqual({ nested: { value: 2 }, values: [3, 1, 4, 5] });
+		expect(replacement).toEqual({ nested: { value: 1 }, values: [1, 2, 3] });
+
+		const array = freezeDeep([1, 2, 3]);
+		const arrayResult = applyImmutable<number[]>(array, [
+			["p", [], 1, 1, [4, 5]],
+			["m", [], [3, 0, 1, 2]],
+			["d", [1]],
+		]);
+		expect(arrayResult).toEqual([3, 4, 5]);
+		expect(array).toEqual([1, 2, 3]);
+	});
+
+	it("shares one private copy-on-write scope across batch partitions", () => {
+		const base = freezeDeep({
+			text: "abcdef",
+			meta: { count: 0 },
+			values: [
+				{ id: 1, value: 1 },
+				{ id: 2, value: 2 },
+				{ id: 3, value: 3 },
+			],
+		});
+		const batches = [
+			[
+				["s", ["meta", "count"], 1],
+				["p", ["values"], 1, 1, [{ id: 4, value: 4 }]],
+			] satisfies Op[],
+			[] satisfies Op[],
+			[
+				["m", ["values"], [2, 0, 1]],
+				["s", ["values", 2, "value"], 40],
+			] satisfies Op[],
+			[
+				["t", ["text"], 2],
+				["a", ["text"], "!"],
+			] satisfies Op[],
+		];
+
+		const intermediate = applyImmutable(base, batches[0]);
+		const intermediateSnapshot = clone(intermediate);
+		let sequential = intermediate;
+		for (let index = 1; index < batches.length; index++) sequential = applyImmutable(sequential, batches[index]!);
+		const streamed = applyImmutableBatches(base, batches);
+		const flattened = applyImmutable(base, batches.flat());
+
+		expect(streamed).toEqual(sequential);
+		expect(streamed).toEqual(flattened);
+		expect(intermediate).toEqual(intermediateSnapshot);
+		expect(base.meta.count).toBe(0);
+		expect(base.values[1]!.id).toBe(2);
+	});
+
+	it("handles tracker-produced batches across arbitrary revision boundaries", () => {
+		type Document = { text: string; values: { id: number; score: number }[]; revision: number };
+		const initial: Document = {
+			text: "start",
+			values: Array.from({ length: 8 }, (_, id) => ({ id, score: 0 })),
+			revision: 0,
+		};
+		const tracker = track(initial);
+		const batches: Array<readonly Op[]> = [];
+		for (let revision = 1; revision <= 40; revision++) {
+			const change = tracker.beginChange();
+			change.state.revision = revision;
+			change.state.text = `${change.state.text.slice(1)}${revision}`;
+			switch (revision % 5) {
+				case 0:
+					change.state.values.reverse();
+					break;
+				case 1:
+					change.state.values.push({ id: 100 + revision, score: revision });
+					break;
+				case 2:
+					change.state.values.shift();
+					break;
+				case 3:
+					change.state.values[revision % change.state.values.length]!.score = revision;
+					break;
+				default:
+					change.state.values.splice(1, 1, { id: 200 + revision, score: revision });
+			}
+			const prepared = change.prepare();
+			batches.push(prepared.ops);
+			tracker.adopt(prepared);
+		}
+
+		expect(applyImmutableBatches(initial, batches)).toEqual(tracker.value);
+	});
+
+	it("does not expose partial application when validation or iteration fails", () => {
+		const base = freezeDeep({ nested: { value: 1 } });
+		const invalidBatches: readonly (readonly Op[])[] = [
+			[["s", ["nested", "value"], 2]],
+			[["s", ["constructor", "prototype", "polluted"], true]],
+		];
+		expect(() => applyImmutableBatches(base, invalidBatches)).toThrow();
+		expect(base.nested.value).toBe(1);
+		expect(({} as { polluted?: boolean }).polluted).toBeUndefined();
+
+		function* throwingBatches(): Generator<readonly Op[]> {
+			yield [["s", ["nested", "value"], 3]];
+			throw new Error("revision stream failed");
+		}
+		expect(() => applyImmutableBatches(base, throwingBatches())).toThrow("revision stream failed");
+		expect(base.nested.value).toBe(1);
+
+		let advancedPastInvalid = false;
+		let iteratorClosed = false;
+		function* invalidOperationBatches(): Generator<readonly Op[]> {
+			try {
+				yield [["s", ["nested", "value"], 4]];
+				yield [["s", ["__proto__", "polluted"], true]];
+				advancedPastInvalid = true;
+			} finally {
+				iteratorClosed = true;
+			}
+		}
+		expect(() => applyImmutableBatches(base, invalidOperationBatches())).toThrow(UnsafePathError);
+		expect(advancedPastInvalid).toBe(false);
+		expect(iteratorClosed).toBe(true);
+		expect(base.nested.value).toBe(1);
+
+		let reads = 0;
+		const target = Object.defineProperty({}, "trap", {
+			enumerable: true,
+			get() {
+				reads++;
+				return {};
+			},
+		});
+		const malformed: Op[] = [["s", "bad-path", 1] as never];
+		expect(() => applyImmutableBatches(target, [malformed])).toThrow(/path/);
+		expect(reads).toBe(0);
+
+		expect(() => applyImmutable({ values: [] }, [["s", ["values", "missing", "value"], 1]])).toThrow(PathError);
+		expect(() => applyImmutable({ values: [{}] }, [["s", ["values", "0", "value"], 1]])).toThrow(UnsafePathError);
+	});
+
+	it("allows one immutable batch to fan out without mutating shared payloads", () => {
+		const payload = freezeDeep({ nested: { value: 1 } });
+		const operations: readonly Op[] = [
+			["s", ["placed"], payload],
+			["s", ["placed", "nested", "value"], 2],
+		];
+		const base = freezeDeep({ placed: null as typeof payload | null });
+		const first = applyImmutable(base, operations);
+		const second = applyImmutable(base, operations);
+		expect(first).toEqual(second);
+		expect(first).not.toBe(second);
+		expect(first.placed).not.toBe(second.placed);
+		expect(payload.nested.value).toBe(1);
+	});
+});
+
+describe("immutable application complexity", () => {
+	it("copies a wide object once rather than once per repeated write", () => {
+		const width = 20_000;
+		const base: Record<string, JsonValue> = {};
+		for (let index = 0; index < width; index++) base[`field${index}`] = index;
+		const operations: Op[] = Array.from({ length: 1_000 }, (_, index): Op => ["s", [`field${index}`], -index]);
+		const originalKeys = Object.keys;
+		let shallowCopies = 0;
+		Object.keys = ((value: object): string[] => {
+			shallowCopies++;
+			return originalKeys(value);
+		}) as typeof Object.keys;
+		let result: Record<string, JsonValue>;
+		try {
+			result = applyImmutable(base, operations);
+		} finally {
+			Object.keys = originalKeys;
+		}
+
+		expect(result.field999).toBe(-999);
+		expect(base.field999).toBe(999);
+		expect(shallowCopies).toBe(1);
+	});
+});
diff --git a/packages/chord/test/delta-traversal.bench.ts b/packages/chord/test/delta-traversal.bench.ts
index 04cbb5647..cf2eb231b 100644
--- a/packages/chord/test/delta-traversal.bench.ts
+++ b/packages/chord/test/delta-traversal.bench.ts
@@ -95,7 +95,6 @@ function sources() {
 			"../src/delta/draft.ts",
 			"../src/delta/diff.ts",
 			"../src/delta/revision-validator.ts",
-			"../src/delta/apply-immutable-batch.ts",
 			"../src/delta/apply-immutable-trusted.ts",
 			"./delta-traversal.bench.ts",
 		].map((path) => [